Christian views of women vary considerably today and have varied even more throughout the last two millennia, evolving along with or counter to the societies in which Christians have lived.

Some contemporary observers accuse Christianity of holding a negative view of women. Others believe Christianity has inspired gender equality. As an example of these opposing views, many societies containing large groups of Christians granted women basic rights of equality in both legal and social terms within the past two centuries. On the other hand, some Christian documents which many Christians consider infallible and absolute, such as the Pauline epistles, contain unilateral instructions for women to submit to male authority, and in some cases instruct Christians to exclude women from church leadership roles. In the context of these verses, men and women have different roles: the woman's role is to submit to the man's leadership, and the man's role is to love his wife even unto death. These passages are controversial within Christian circles and there is a great deal of debate as to how to correctly interpret such scriptures.

Introduction

Christianity emerged from Judaism, which is considered by some a patriarchal religion, because God is almost always referred to with masculine pronouns. Judaism maintains that God has no biological sex, but that he has revealed himself as masculine in gender.

According to Jewish tradition, Eve, the first woman, was created out of the rib of Adam, the first man. Interpreters consider this to indicate a natural inferiority of women within the creation story of the religion. Eve's weakness has sometimes been blamed for causing Adam's fall, and thus for humanity's fall into original sin. This claim was frequently made during the Middle Ages. In addition, those who argue that Judaism is founded upon patriarchal principles point out that religious and governmental authority within Jewish cultures has usually been restricted to the male gender.

However even in the Jewish scriptures there are countercurrents to this patriarchal emphasis. While the creation narrative in Genesis 2 says Eve was made from and for Adam, Genesis 1 says that both man and woman were created at the same time, and explicitly states that both male and female were created in the image of God. The Old Testament presents strong female role models, like the Judge Deborah, Judith and Esther, who were depicted as saving the Hebrew people from disaster. In the book of Proverbs, the divine attribute of Holy Wisdom is presented as female.

There are differing interpretations of the Bible, differing traditions of various churches and differing cultures in which these churches exist. Some groups express an official view of sex and gender expectations within their congregations and within the world, while others do not.

Historically

Quakers have always believed in the legitimacy of women's ministry, with only a few exceptions in the early years. The modern feminist movement began in 1848 at a conference in Seneca Falls, New York where 100 men and women signed a declaration that "all men and women are created equally." Early leaders of the movement were Quaker, including Lucretia Mott. See the main article Quaker views of women.

Currently

In general, the issues have been what the proper role of women is (a) in the home; (b) in the church; (c) in society at large. Among the denominations, movements, and organizations that express or have previously expressed a view, there are four main views:

1. Full equality of roles and rights, a view currently professed by:
   • The Uniting Church in Australia
   • The Evangelical Lutheran Church in Germany
   • The Religious Society of Friends (Quakers)
   • The Church of the Brethren
   • Christians for Biblical Equality
   • The Episcopal Church USA
   • The United Methodist Church
   • The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America
   • The Presbyterian Church USA
   • The Evangelical Covenant Church
   • Many others
2. Full secular
   
   
   
   equality but restricted ecclesiastical roles and privileges, a view currently professed by:
   • The Presbyterian Church of Australia
   • The Eastern Orthodox Church
   • The Roman Catholic Church
   • The Presbyterian Church in America
   • Many others
3. Women should, to be in good standing with their church or with God, voluntarily accept restricted roles or rights in both secular and ecclesiastical life, a view currently professed by:
   • The Orthodox Presbyterian Church
   • The Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood
   • Jehovah's Witnesses
4. Women should be forced to accept such restricted roles or rights, a view currently professed by:
   • Christian Reconstructionism
   • Dominion theology
5. Mixed
   • The Southern Baptist Convention's views vary. Generally the national office and member churches support general civil equality (there is resistance to female soldiers from some prominent Southern Baptists) and do not believe in female clergy. However, all members of a Southern Baptist church are allowed to vote on matters of business of a local church, such as the hiring of a pastor, or the construction of a building.

(The above lists are examples and are obviously not exhaustive.)

It is not always clear which category a church or movement falls into. The fourth view has been criticized as contravening international norms of human rights and is not enforceable under various national constitutions and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

The Wesleyan tradition and the Holiness and Pentecostal movements, as well as a growing number of contemporary Charismatic churches which draw from them, have increasingly accepted women as leaders on an equal footing with men.

Roman Catholicism, although not in conformity with some modern Western views on this issue, has increasingly addressed the issue from the highest levels, including the Papal Office. For instance, Pope John Paul II has addressed this issue in his 1995 , his 1996 , and the 1988 Apostolic Letter , for examples.

Biblical arguments for equal roles

The following are just a few of the scriptural references that can be interpreted to allow greater equality between men and women:

1. Jesus said very little about the roles of men and women, but the way he acted shows how he considered the subject. In John 4:7 we find him talking to an unrelated woman as an equal, something no Jewish or Roman male of that day would normally do. He talks with the Samaritan woman at the well, and treats her with respect, though her own neighbors obviously treat her with disdain.
2. In Luke 8:1-3 and several other passages, we see that Jesus had women as disciples.
3. Jesus calls a woman, Mary Magdalene, to be the first witness to carry the good news of the resurrection. This is extraordinary, and notable with regard to the fact that women were not allowed to be witnesses in legal proceedings under rabbinical law as they were said to be "all liars." Many female ministers have held this to be the main justification for their equal calling.
4. In Acts 2:14-18, in Peter's sermon at the initiation of the modern church, he quotes the prophet Joel about the pouring out of the Spirit in the last days: the quoted benefits of the Spirit are shared equally by men and women. In fact, both sons and daughters will prophesy. (Prophecy here is not so much a foretelling of the future - rather the primary meaning is to speak for God.)
5. Paul is accompanied by house-church leaders Priscilla and Aquila. Priscilla, a female, is a dominant figure in Paul's ministry and leads over Aquila.
6. A woman named Junia is mentioned of note among the apostles (KJV) Romans 16:7. (The interpretation of the Greek for this verse is controversial, with some claiming it could refer to a man named Junias.)
7. In Romans 16:1-2, Phoebe is commended as a woman deaconess.
8. Pliny the Younger, in a correspondence to Emperor Trajan of Rome, writes of two female deaconesses whom he had tortured.
9. In Galatians 3:27-29, the author (Paul) makes a blanket statement that baptism into Christ constitutes putting on or clothing one's self with Christ. This passage reads:

.."There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus"

This is considered by Liberal Christians to effectively remove all conditions of separation based on race, gender, and social status e.g. slave or free. According to Paul, one's faith in Christ makes one

Conservative Christians in the Reformed and Baptist traditions argue that this passage speaks only of the new ease of salvation and not of right to church office. They assert that when speaking of salvation we are all "one" in Christ Jesus, but when speaking of church office, women are excluded by, most notably, 1 Corinthians 14:34 and 35. Conservatives in the Methodist/Holiness and Pentecostal traditions are more likely to have women in equal leadership roles.

Two passages, which do not specifically mention women, are seen to also support any person who does Christ's work. In Mark 9:38 the disciples report to Jesus that someone is casting out demons in his name. They said they forbade him, because he is not "one of us." Jesus tells the disciples to leave him alone. Those who are not against us are for us, he says. Even a cup of water given in Jesus' name should not be opposed and will have its reward.

Jesus' stories often centered on deeds of compassion and generosity, traits often associated with womankind - and many of his parables involved women. An example is the Parable of the widow's mite, in which a relatively tiny gift from an impoverished woman is regarded by Christ as being a generous gift, equal with a lavish gift from a rich man, because the money was needed more by the poor woman - the rich man could easily afford to be generous.

Also, much of the imagery in the Bible depicts the Church as a bride, with Jesus Christ as the bridegroom. Therefore, every woman is in some sense an icon of the Christian Church. Men are also encouraged to live as icons of Christ, but to imitate Christ's humility and laying down of his life, rather than attempting to imitate Christ's lordship. See Ephesians 5.

Biblical arguments for distinct gender roles

There are many scriptural references that reveal equal yet distinct functions/roles between men and women at home and in the church. The Bible endorses different functions/roles between men and women in the home. (1 Peter 3:1-6; Eph 5:22, 25; Titus 2:4; Colossians 3:18-19). In general, men are exhorted to lead with love and consideration, while women are told to submit with loving reverence. Colossians 2:18-23 in particular is addressed directly to specific groups: women are to submit to the leadership of their husband, men to love their wives and not to treat them with harshness, children to respect their parents, fathers not to frustrate their children, and slaves to obey their masters. This passage does not order the man to force his wife to submit to him, or the woman to make her husband love her, though in the time that it was written this may well have been extrapolated from the verse. There is no clear instance where these roles are reversed within the context of the home. Both Paul and Peter based these principles on Old Testament theology as opposed to particular cultural traditions. (1 Peter 3:1-6; 1 Corinthians 11:1-16; 1 Timothy 2:12; 1 Corinthians 14:33-38 ). Their teachings were expected to be practiced in all Christian Churches. (1 Timothy 2:12; 3:15-16 ;1 Corinthians 14:33-38 ; 1 Corinthians 11:1-16). Early church documents also reveal that the original hearers interpreted these teachings quite literally. Churches like the Orthodox and Roman Catholics also maintain teachings of gender distinction as well as most churches throughout church history.

The apostle Paul taught that the same principles apply in a formal church setting:

1. Paul addresses women in formal church settings to keep silent based on Torah law regarding female subjugation to men (1 Cor 14:34-35). However, there is debate as to how much this should be seen as Paul speaking to a specific congregation at a specific time, and whether the passage speaks directly to today's society
2. Women are told to learn in silence with attitude of subjection in formal church settings based on creation order. (1 Timothy 2:12-15)
3. Women are restricted from teaching and "usurping" authority over men in formal church settings for same above reason with ties to family order. (1 Timothy 2:12-15)
4. Women seem not to be considered in verses that discuss the criteria for selecting bishops and deacons. (Titus 1:5-, 1 Timothy 3:1-12,14-15)
5. Jesus did not choose any women to be apostles. After Jesus' ascension, the apostles seem not to have considered female candidates when choosing a replacement for Judas, or when choosing seven leaders (Luke 6:13; Acts 1:14-26; Acts 6:3)
6. These exhortations were given to various church contexts and to traveling evangelists (Timothy, Titus) which were told to remain true to these specific teachings (removing the argument that they were cultural prescriptions), letters often circulated to all the churches, coincided (within the texts themselves) with teachings regarding family order, coincided with Torah, there is a consistency of doctrine in all letters of the NT, coincides with early church documents and traditions, and noted by Paul to be the commands of the Lord and traditions amongst "all the churches of God." (Areas: Corinth, Ephesus, Crete,etc.; 1 Corinthians 11:1-16; 1 Corinthians 14:33-38; 1 Timothy 3:14-15)

Other notes:There is a controversial passage in 1 Corinthians where women are allowed to speak in formal church settings with the condition that they are veiled, but the scripture further reveals that a woman's hair is the veil. (1 Cor 11:1-16) This reveals that the ruling principle is not limitation, but that ministry should be done with an attitude of reverence and submission to those in authority, and God's design and order. Paul reveals through the guidelines and principles of gender distinction that God is concerned with the preservation of family, creation, and church order. That is why men's leadership roles are formally endorsed throughout the pages of scripture as opposed to women's.

However, in scripture, one can find that outside contexts of formality, women operate in many gifts of the Spirit like evangelizing, prophesying, serving, praying, teaching, laboring in ministry, preaching. (John 4:28-30; 1 Cor 11:1-16; Matt 27:55; Acts 1:14; Acts 18:26; Phil 4:3; Luke 2:36-38)

Equality The scripture is clear that in Christ, "There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus." (Gal 3:28)As well, Acts 2:17-18 says, "In the last days, God says, I will pour out my Spirit on all people. Your sons and daughters will prophesy, your young men will see visions, your old men will dream dreams. Even on my servants, both men and women, I will pour out my Spirit in those days, and they will prophesy."

God expects all church members, male and female, to use the gifts God has given them (within the guidelines in scripture and in reverence to God's order and design).

Luke 12:48 ..Everyone to whom much is given, of him will much be required…These are verses which reveal the equality of men and women. However, equality need not mean similarity. Neither should it produce envy and jealousy; but appreciation, dependency, and love. (1 Cor 12). God chooses whom he desires not based on any form of superiority, but his will. (Deuteronomy 7:6-8). So how should church ministry look? It should always be done in an attitude of reverence and submission to those in authority, and to God's design and order.

Gender distinction never endorses oppression or abuse of authority since in all these texts those in leadership are given mandates to rule with godliness and love. Jesus taught that love is the marker of a real faith in Christ. Love must be subject to Christ's example.

References:

"Declaration Inter Insigniores on the question of the Admission of Women to the Ministerial Priesthood." Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, October 15, 1976.

Apostolic Letter Ordinatio Sacerdotalis (On Ordination to the Priesthood)." Pope John Paul II, May 22, 1994.

"Apostolic Letter Mulieris Dignnitatem (On the Dignity of Women)." Pope John Paul II, August 15, 1988.

Catechism of the Catholic Church.

Mary, the mother of Jesus

Many Christians also see Mary as the prototypical Christian, as in the Bible, she was the first to hear the Good News of Jesus's coming. She is one of the few of Jesus's followers reported to be present at his crucifixion. Thus she is a woman who is most imitated among Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox saints. Every pregnant woman is seen in the Orthodox church as an icon of Mary pregnant with Jesus.

See also

• Old Testament views on women
• Quaker views of women