It is generally accepted that Aramaic was the mother tongue of Jesus. This article explores the use of Aramaic in the New Testament, as attributed to Jesus and others.

Cultural and linguistic background

Evidence from 1st century Galilee and Judea shows that Aramaic was the main language of the native population. Evidence from within the New Testament supports this view by giving place names and some words of Jesus in Aramaic.

It is likely that Jesus also knew some Koine Greek, as it had been the lingua franca of the Near East for three centuries, and was the language used in the administration of the eastern parts of the Roman Empire.

Jesus may have spoken some Hebrew, but Aramaic would have been the predominant everyday spoken language. By Jesus' lifetime, Hebrew had become the preserve of an elite of scholars and had ceased to be a living language. The majority of people could recognise words that were similar to Aramaic, and knew a few religious terms, but little more than that.

A few words of Latin may have been known to Jesus. However, these were probably learned through the medium of Greek, and were confined to various symbols of Roman rule ('denarius' for example).

Aramaic phrases in the Greek New Testament

Within the text of the Greek New Testament a few words and phrases in Aramaic are included untranslated. These are mainly words of Jesus, and perhaps had a special significance because of this.

A small minority believe that the majority, or the whole, of the New Testament was originally written in Aramaic. This position, called Aramaic primacy, is popular, but most scholars see the Old Syriac and Peshitta versions of the New Testament as clearly based on the Greek. However, the fact remains that there does exist a layer of Aramaic-speaking culture beneath the Greek text, and that agreed point is what is discussed here.

Talitha koum (Ταλιθα κουμ)

Mark 5:41

And taking the hand of the child, he said to her, "Talitha koum", which is translated, "Little girl, I say to you, get up".

This verse gives an Aramaic phrase, attributed to Jesus in the healing of a girl, with a translation into Greek. The Greek transliteration of the phrase is ταλιθα κουμ.

The most dependable Greek manuscripts (Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Vaticanus) of Mark's Gospel have this text, but a few (Codex Alexandrinus, the Majority Text and the Vulgate) write κουμι (koumi) instead. The latter became the Textus Receptus, and is the version that appears in the Authorised Version.

The Aramaic is ţlîthâ qûm. The word 'ţlîthâ' is the feminine form of the word 'ţlê', meaning 'young'. 'Qûm' is the Aramaic verb 'to rise, get up'. In the feminine singular imperative, it was originally 'qûmî'. However, there is evidence that in speech the final 'î' was dropped so that the imperative did not distinguish between masculine and feminine genders. The older manuscripts, therefore, used a Greek spelling that reflected pronunciation, whereas the addition of an 'ι' was perhaps due to a bookish copyist.

In Aramaic,

Ephphatha (Εφφαθα)

Mark 7:34

And looking up to heaven, he sighed and said to him, "Ephphatha", which is 'be opened'.

Once again, the Aramaic word is given with a translation. In Greek, the Aramaic is written εφφαθα. This is from the Aramaic 'ethpthaħ', the passive imperative of the verb 'pthaħ', 'to open'.

In Aramaic,

Abba (Αββα)

Mark 14:36

And he said, Abba, Father, all things are possible unto thee; take away this cup from me: nevertheless not what I will, but what thou wilt.

Abba, an Aramaic word (written Αββα in Greek, and 'abbā in Aramaic), is immediately followed by the Greek equivalent (Πατηρ) with no explicit mention of it being a translation. The phrase Abba, Father is repeated in Romans 8:15 and Galatians 4:6.

In Aramaic,

Raca (Ρακα)

Matthew 5:22

But I say unto you, That whosoever is angry with his brother without a cause shall be in danger of the judgment: and whosoever shall say to his brother, Raca, shall be in danger of the council: but whosoever shall say, Thou fool, shall be in danger of hell fire.

Raca, or Raka, in the Aramaic of the Talmud means empty one, fool, empty head.

In Aramaic,

Mammon (Μαμωνας)

Matthew 6:24

No man can serve two masters: for either he will hate the one, and love the other; or else he will hold to the one, and despise the other. Ye cannot serve God and mammon.

Luke 16:9-13

And I say unto you, Make to yourselves friends of the mammon of unrighteousness; that, when ye fail, they may receive you into everlasting habitations. He that is faithful in that which is least is faithful also in much: and he that is unjust in the least is unjust also in much. If therefore ye have not been faithful in the unrighteous mammon, who will commit to your trust the true riches? And if ye have not been faithful in that which is another man's, who shall give you that which is your own? No servant can serve two masters: for either he will hate the one, and love the other; or else he will hold to the one, and despise the other. Ye cannot serve God and mammon.

2 Clement 6

Now the Lord declares, "No servant can serve two masters." If we desire, then, to serve both God and mammon, it will be unprofitable for us. "For what will it profit if a man gain the whole world, and lose his own soul?" This world and the next are two enemies. The one urges to adultery and corruption, avarice and deceit; the other bids farewell to these things. We cannot, therefore, be the friends of both; and it behoves us, by renouncing the one, to make sure of the other. Let us reckon that it is better to hate the things present, since they are trifling, and transient, and corruptible; and to love those as being good and incorruptible. For if we do the will of Christ, we shall find rest; otherwise, nothing shall deliver us from eternal punishment, if we disobey His commandments. (Roberts-Donaldson)

In Aramaic,

In the New Testament the word Μαμωνᾶς — Mamōnâs — is declined like a Greek word, whereas many of the other Aramaic words are treated as indeclinable foreign words.

Rabboni (Ραββουνει)

John 20:16

Jesus saith unto her, Mary. She turned herself, and saith unto him, Rabboni; which is to say, Master.

Also in Mark 10:51. Hebrew form rabbi used as title of Jesus in Matthew 26:25,49; Mark 9:5, 11:21, 14:45; John 1:49, 4:31, 6:25, 9:2, 11:8.

In Aramaic,

Maranatha (μαρανα θα)

Didache 10 (Prayer after Communion)

. Let grace come, and let this world pass away. Hosanna to the God (Son) of David! If any one is holy, let him come; if any one is not so, let him repent. Maranatha. Amen. (Roberts-Donaldson)

1 Corinthians 16:22

If any man love not the Lord Jesus Christ, let him be Anathema Maranatha.

In Aramaic it means Lord, come!

In Aramaic,

Eli Eli lema sabachthani (Ηλει Ηλει λεμα σαβαχθανει)

Matthew 27:46

Around the ninth hour, Jesus shouted in a loud voice, saying "Eli Eli lema sabachthani?" which is, "My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?"

Mark 15:34

And at the ninth hour, Jesus shouted in a loud voice, "Eloi Eloi lema sabachthani?" which is translated, "My God, my God, for what have you forsaken me?"

This phrase, shouted by Jesus from the cross, is given to us in these two versions. The Matthean version of the phrase is transliterated in Greek as ηλει ηλει λεμα σαβαχθανει. The Markan version is similar, but begins ελωι ελωι (elōi rather than ēlei).

Jesus seems to be quoting the first line of Psalm 22. However, he is not quoting the canonical Hebrew version (êlî êlî lâmâ `^azabtânî), but is using an Aramaic translation of it (see targum).

In the following verse, in both accounts, some who hear Jesus' cry imagine that he is calling for help from Elijah (Eliyyâ). This is perhaps to underline the incomprehension of the bystanders about what is happening. Matthew's use of ηλι may indicate a more 'official' rendition of the psalm verse, more in line with the Hebrew. Mark's version probably represents the Aramaic colloquial better. The Aramaic behind Matthew is êlî êlî lmâ švaqtanî. Whereas Mark has elohî elohî.

A few ancient Greek manuscripts show signs of trying to normalise this text. For instance, the peculiar Codex Bezae

As the phrase is clearly translated into Greek in both instances there can be little doubt as to its meaning. However, a minority have speculated on different meanings, among them is George Lamsa, but his methodology has been shown to be seriously flawed.The Aramaic word švaqtanî is based on the verb švaq, 'to leave, forget', with the perfect tense ending -t (2nd person singular: 'you'), and the object suffix -anî (1st person singular: 'me').

This phrase is treated in more depth at Last sayings of Jesus.

In Aramaic,

tittle (κεραια)

Matthew 5:18

For assuredly, I say to you, till heaven and earth pass away, one jot or one tittle will by no means pass from the law till all is fulfilled.

The quotation uses them as an example of extremely minor details. In the Greek original translated as English jot and tittle is found "iota" and "keraia". Iota is the smallest letter of the Greek alphabet (ι), but since only capitals were used at the time the Greek New Testament was written (Ι), it probably represents the Aramaic yodh (י) which is the smallest letter of the Aramaic alphabet. "Keraia" is a hook or serif, possibly accents in Greek but more likely hooks on Aramaic letters, (ב) versus (כ), or additional marks such as crowns (as Vulgate apex) found in Jewish Bibles. The standard reference for NT Greek is A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and other Early Christian Literature, Bauer, Gingrich, Danker, et al. Liddell and Scott Greek-English Lexicon for keraia is here:

Korbanas (κορβανας)

Matthew 27:6

But the chief priests, taking the pieces of silver, said, ‘It is not lawful to put them into the treasury, since they are blood money.’

In Aramaic it refers to the treasury in the Temple in Jerusalem, derived from the Hebrew Corban (קרבן), found in Mark 7:11 and the Septuagint (in Greek transliteration), meaning religious gift.

The Greek κορβανᾶς is declined as a Greek noun.

In Aramaic,

Sikera (σικερα)

Luke 1:15

for he will be great in the sight of the Lord. He must never drink wine or strong drink; even before his birth he will be filled with the Holy Spirit.

In Aramaic it means barley beer, from the Akkadian shikaru.

In Aramaic,

Hosanna (Ωςαννα)

Mark 11:9

Then those who went ahead and those who followed were shouting, Hosanna! Blessed is the one who comes in the name of the Lord!

In Aramaic it means help.

In Aramaic,

Aramaic personal names in the New Testament

Personal names in the New Testament come from a number of languages, Hebrew and Greek are most common. However, there are a good few Aramaic names as well. The most prominent feature in Aramaic names is 'bar' (Greek transliteration βαρ, Aramaic bar), meaning 'son of', a common patronym prefix. Its Hebrew equivalent, 'ben', is conspicuous by its absence. Some examples are:

• Matthew 10:3 — Bartholomew (Βαρθολομαιος from bar-Tôlmay, perhaps 'son of furrows' or 'ploughman').
• Matthew 16:17 — Simon bar-Jona (Σιμων Βαριωνας from Šim`ôn bar-Yônâ, 'Simon son of Jonah').
• John 1:42 — Simon bar-Jochanan ('Simon son of John').
• Matthew 27:16 — Barabbas (Βαραββας from bar-Abbâ, 'son of the father').
• Mark 10:46 — Bartimaeus (Βαρτιμαιος from bar-Ţim'ay, perhaps 'son of defilement' or 'son of a whore').
• Acts 1:23 — Barsabbas (Βαρσαββας from bar-Šabbâ, 'son of the Sabbath').
• Acts 4:36 — Joseph who is called Barnabas (Βαρναβας from bar-Navâ meaning 'son of prophecy, the prophet', but given the Greek translation υιος παρακλησεως; usually translated as 'son of consolation/encouragement', the Greek could mean 'invocation' as well).
• Acts 13:6 — Bar-Jesus (Βαριησους from bar-Yêšû`, 'son of Jesus/Joshua').

Boanerges (Βοανηργες)

Mark 3:17

And James, the son of Zebedee, and John, the brother of James, and he gave them the name Boanerges, which is Sons of Thunder.

Jesus surnames the brothers James and John to reflect their impetuosity. The Greek rendition of their name is Βοανηργες (Boanērges).

There has been much speculation about this name. Given the Greek translation that comes with it ('Sons of Thunder'), it seems that the first element of the name is 'bnê', 'sons of' (the plural of 'bar'), Aramaic (בני). This is represented by βοανη (boanê), giving two vowels in the first syllable where one would be sufficient. It could be inferred from this that the Greek transliteration may not be a good one. The second part of the name is often reckoned to be 'rğaš' ('tumult') Aramaic (רניש), or 'rğaz' ('anger') Aramaic (רנז). Maurice Casey, however, argues that it is a simple misreading of the word for thunder, 'r`am' (due to the similarity of s to the final m). This is supported by one Syriac translation of the name as 'bnay ra`mâ'. However, the Peshitta reads 'bnay rğešy'.

Cephas (Κηφας)

John 1:42

He brought him to Jesus. Jesus looked at him and said, "You are Simon son of John, you shall be called Cephas", which is translated 'Peter'.

1 Corinthians 1:12

But I say that each of you says "I am of Paul", or "I am of Apollos", or "I am of Cephas", or "I am of Christ".

In these two passages, 'Cephas' is given as the nickname of the apostle better known as Simon Peter. The Greek word is transliterated Κηφᾶς (Kēphâs).

The apostle's given name appears to be Simon, and he is given the Aramaic nickname, kêfâ or kîfâ, meaning 'rock'. The final sigma (s) is added in Greek to make the name masculine rather than feminine. That the meaning of the name was more important than the name itself is evidenced by the universal acceptance of the Greek translation, Πέτρος (Petros). It is not known why Paul uses the Aramaic name rather than the Greek name for Simon Peter when he writes to the church in Corinth. Perhaps, he is writing at a time before Cephas came to be popularly known as Peter.

In Aramaic,

Thomas (Θωμας)

John 11:16

Then Thomas, who was called Didymus, said to his co-disciples, "Now let us go that we might die with him!"

Thomas (Θωμᾶς) is listed among the disciples of Jesus in all four gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. However, it is only in John's Gospel that more information is given. In three places (John 11:16, 20:24 and 21:2) he is given the name Didymus (Δίδυμος), the Greek word for a twin. In fact, "the Twin" is not just a surname, it is a translation of "Thomas". The Greek Θωμᾶς — Thōmâs — comes from the Aramaic tômâ, "twin". Therefore, rather than two personal names, Thomas Didymus, there is a single nickname, the Twin. Christian tradition gives him the personal name Judas, and he was perhaps named Thomas to distinguish him from others of the same name.

In Aramaic,

Tabitha (Ταβειθα)

Acts 9:36

In Joppa, there was a disciple named Tabitha, which is translated Dorcas.

The disciple's name is given both in Aramaic (Ταβειθα) and Greek (Δορκας). The Aramaic name is a transliteration of Ţvîthâ. Both names mean 'gazelle'.

It may be just coincidence that Peter's words to her in verse 40, "Tabitha, get up!" (Ταβειθα ἀνάστηθι), are similar to the "talitha koum" phrase used by Jesus.

In Aramaic,

Aramaic place names in the New Testament

Gethsemane (Γεθςημανει)

Matthew 26:36

Then Jesus went with them to a place called Gethsemane.

Mark 14:32

And they went to a place that has the name Gethsemane.

The place where Jesus takes his disciples to pray before his arrest is given the Greek transliteration Γεθσημανει (Gethsēmani). It represents the Aramaic 'Gath-Šmânê', meaning 'the oil press' or 'oil vat' (referring to olive oil).

In Aramaic,

Golgotha (Γολγοθα)

Mark 15:22

And they took him up to the place Golgotha, which is translated Place of the Skull.

John 19:17

And carrying his cross by himself, he went out to the so-called Place of the Skull, which is called in 'Hebrew' Golgotha.

This is clearly Aramaic rather than Hebrew. 'Gûlgaltâ' is the Aramaic for 'skull'. The name appears in all of the gospels except Luke, which calls the place simply Kranion 'the Skull', with no Aramaic. The name 'Calvary' is taken from the Latin Vulgate translation, Calvaria.

In Aramaic,

Gabbatha (Γαββαθα)

John 19:13

When Pilate heard these words, he brought Jesus outside and sat on the judge's bench at a place called The Stone Pavement, or in Hebrew, Gabbatha.

The place name appears to be Aramaic. According to Josephus, War, V.ii.1, #51, the word Gabath means high place, or elevated place, so perhaps a raised flat area near the temple. The final "א" could then represent the emphatic state of the noun.

In Aramaic, it could be (גבהתא).

Akeldama (Ακελδαμαχ)

Acts 1:19

And this became known to all the inhabitants of Jerusalem, so that field was called, in their own dialect, Akeldama, that is Field of Blood.

The place of Judas Iscariot's suicide is clearly named Field of Blood in Greek. However, the manuscript tradition gives a number of different spellings of the Aramaic. The Majority Text reads Ακελδαμα (akeldama); other manuscript versions give Αχελδαμα (acheldama), Ακελδαιμα (akeldaima), Ακελδαμακ (akeldamak) and Ακελδαμαχ (akeldamach). Despite these variant spellings the Aramaic is most probably 'ħqêl dmâ', 'field of blood'.

In Aramaic,